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Activity 6.3: Ethics in earlier research (1 hour)

Look back at the paper you read in Week 1. Can you see any ethical weaknesses or practices that might come under the scrutiny of an ethics committee today?

I highlighted two potential ethical problems when I first read this paper. The first was that the material on Virtual Classroom was mainly in a written format and this may cause problems with those students with SpLD or other print disabled students.

The second was that use of pen names could encourage disclosures/comments that were unwise in a class situation and, as course progressed, identities may be inadvertently revealed.

On re-reading I would also highlight the problems with the degree of author involvement in the interviewing. The author was also a lecturer on the course and this may affect the answers that the students were willing to offer both for written and face to face interviews.

I am also concerned about the fact that Virtual Classroom was a development project developed by the New Jersey Institute of Technology with extensive funding from the Annenberg Foundation which supports not-for-profit organisations. There are two ethical questions here in that the technology was being developed for lease to other institutions and so the authors had a vested interest in a positive result; and that money intended for not-for-profit research has funded a technology project that was intended for lease.

H809: Activity 6.1: Audiences podcast (2 hours)

Listen to the podcast, and consider how the issues raised might be reflected (or not) in the Block 1 readings.

Notes:

ESRC concerned in user engagement and that effects how you turn your research idea into something they will fund

Policy-directed initiatives want specific and timely reporting; want guidelines; focused on one area; restrict language i.e. personalise it;

Academics can follow the money so influences research

Research paper for journal - no fixed audience so report on everything

Different types of journals - some have general audience; some specialist

Conference - draw more widely on work you have done; can be seen as stepping stone to journal article

Books - more interactive to write chap of book;

Heavy peer review for journal but lots of informed feedback for book chapter

Static writing of complex social situations is hard to portray; easier in conferences with video, photo and audio.

Can have censoring of policy directed research before allowed to cite elsewhere - may occur after contracting

Interdisciplinary nature of educational technology - can publish in wide area

Hiltz & Meinke, 1989

Starr Roxanne Hiltz:

Ph. D. in Sociology, Columbia University, June 1969

M. A. in Sociology, Columbia University, June 1964

A. B., Vassar College, June 1963, magna cum laude, Major in Sociology, Minor in Economics

Robert Meinke:?

Teaching Sociology (TS), published quarterly, provides articles, notes, and reviews intended to be helpful to the discipline's teachers. Articles range from experimental studies of teaching and learning to broad, synthetic essays on pedagogically important issues. The general intent is to share theoretically stimulating and practically useful information and advice with teachers.

Impact Factor: 0.582
Ranked: 75/114 in Sociology and 87/139 in Education & Educational Research

New Jersey Institute of Technology / Upsala College (now closed after financial problems in 1980s)

Annenberg/CPB Project funded Virtual Classroom at NJIT.

Annenberg Foundation is private foundation established in 1989, supports non-profit organisations

Wegerif & Mercer 1997

Rupert Wegerif - Dialogical approaches to teaching and learning with ICT

Neil Mercer - BSc (Hons) in Psychology, University of Manchester
PhD in Psycholinguistics, University of Leicester
Chartered Psychologist

Language & Education provides a forum for the discussion of recent topics and issues in the language disciplines which have an immediate bearing upon thought and practice in education. Articles draw from their subject matter important and well-communicated implications for one or more of the following: curriculum, pedagogy or evaluation in education.

The task of the Journal is to encourage language specialists and language in education researchers to organise and present their material in such a way as to highlight its educational implications, thereby influencing educational theorists and practitioners and therefore educational outcomes for individual children.

Open University

Roschelle 1992

Jeremy Roschelle:

• Ph.D., Education/Cognitive Science, University of California, Berkeley, 1991
• M.A., Education/Cognitive Science, University of California, Berkeley, 1989
• B.S., Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1985

The Journal of the Learning Sciences provides a multidisciplinary forum for the presentation of research on learning and education. The journal seeks to foster new ways of thinking about learning that will allow our understanding of cognition and social cognition to have impact in education. It publishes research articles that advance our understanding of learning in real-world situations and of promoting learning in such venues, including articles that report on the roles of technology can play in promoting deep and lasting learning. The Journal of the Learning Sciences promotes engaging and thoughtful participation in learning activities, and articles reporting on new methodologies that enable rigorous investigation of learning in real-world situations.

2009 Impact Factor: 1.767
Ranking: 9/44 in Social Science, Psychology, Educational
Ranking: 15/139 in Social Science, Education & Educational Research

The Institute for Research on Learning (IRL) was a research group in Palo Alto, California founded by George Pake in 1986 through a grant from the Xerox Foundation, It was a non profit research organization that looked at learning in a wide variety of settings, including schools, workplaces, and informal settings, using collaborative, multidisciplinary terms. Research questions were based in real-world problems and settings defined in collaboration with the institutions who hired IRL. IRL had a significant impact on education and knowledge management (among many other fields) not only in the US but globally because of the development of the community of practice idea. Aims to construct an integrated approach to collaboration and conceptual change

Activity 4.2: Reading the Roschelle (1992) paper

Roschelle, J. (1992) 'Learning by collaborating: convergent conceptual change', Journal of the Learning Sciences, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 235-76

We suggest that you divide up your reading of the paper in the following way:

1. Read pp. 235-41 (up to the heading 'The Case Study').

Both 'collaborative learning' and 'conceptual change' are areas of research. As you might guess, 'collaborative learning' is about learning together but it is used by different authors in a variety of ways. (You may remember Hiltz and Meinke (1989) provided their own definition.) 'Conceptual change' refers to changes in people's understanding of concepts. There is a great deal of research into conceptual change in science learning. Roschelle gives his own definition of conceptual change on p. 237.

You might also want to note that 'CA' generally refers to Conversation Analysis. However, 'CA' is often referred to in the paper in the context of 'conversational actions' so that overall we cannot be clear as to Roschelle's exact meaning.

Theory - relational, situated view of learning

As you read consider the following questions:

1. • What argument is being made?

That students working collaboratively need to converge to develop a shared meaning and this process is characterised by four features:

Production of a deep features situation
Interplay of physical metaphors
Interactive cycles of conversational turn-taking
Progressively higher standards of evidence for convergence

1. • How does it relate to the kind of research being reported?

Students were working in pairs on a computer simulation to refine their concept of acceleration. The pair of students analysed were considered by the author to have achieved convergent conceptual change.

1. • How does the research question interact with the research work being undertaken?

Research question: How can the students converge on a deep new conception with only figurative, ambiguous and imprecise language and physical interactions at their disposal?

The study analysed the interactions between the students and between the students and the computer simulation.

1. • What kinds of evidence are relevant to the research question?

Conversation
Body language
Tasks performed on the computer
Individual post-study interviews to determine whether the two students share the same conception.

2. Read pp. 241-63 (up to the heading 'Evaluation of the Claims').

Read this section through fully before considering the following questions:

2. • How are the results/data presented? Compare with how Wegerif and Mercer presented their results in Reading 2.

Extracts from conversations shown in each paper however Roschelle emphasises the context and interactions with the computer and the student's body language and gestures which fits well with the research argument concerning the interactions.

2. • What does this say about the kinds of material that count as 'evidence' for the claims being made?

Conversation is not enough to analyse group interactions. He has added in body language, gesture and also physical metaphors such as Carol's demonstration on her hands.

2. • What does the author consider relevant about the context or setting for the study?

Private, urban high school
past knowledge: algebra
intellectual ability: average students but struggling with science
Relationship: close friends who had worked together on previous occasions
Participation: voluntary
Timing: 2X one hour sessions after school
Analysis timing: after 12 problems where they had not yet developed an explanation that corresponded to a scientific understanding

3. Read the remainder of the paper.
   • What is the nature of the claims made in the evaluation?

A shared conceptual change occurred which was compatible with a scientific interpretation of velocity and acceleration.

Gradual convergence towards a shared  understanding.

3. • How is the previously reported data used to support these claims?

Data from results section used to illustrate each part of the claims

3. • In what ways does the author relate the reported results to the wider literature?

Restates the basis of the problem with reference to literature
Majority of literature uses basis of contructivism but states that few theories account for convergent constructions in face of tendencies to diverge.
Tendency to diverge is strong in science (not backed by reference)

Discussion on how computer simulation can be truly constructive and situated or misused by teacher. How relational theory can assist this.

Differences from Vygotsky and Piaget and how this work supplements it

3. • Are the theoretical recommendations justified by the reported research?

'A case study cannot prove or disprove a theory, but it can clarify the meaning and import of a set of ideas'

'Mainstream conceptual change research on science learning should focus attention on convergence'

I believe that this is justified by the evidence produced here from one case study. The case study shows some good indications on how the two students collaborate to produce shared knowledge and it does need further work to see if this case is reproduced for other successful cases and also the difference with unsuccessful cases.

http://learn.open.ac.uk/file.php/6758/Readings/ebook_h809_reading5_oliver_etal_e1i1_l3.pdf [Accessed 20th February 2011]

Read the Oliver et al. chapter, but in particular concentrate on the section headed 'Methodology' (pp. 30-7). Consider the following questions:

1. What do each of the various approaches listed highlight?

Action Research Approach - 'technical' - instrumentalist view i.e. use pre-formed models.

'practical' - models provide guidance but practitioner must develop own practice - wider application

'emancipatory' - critical theory - educators recognise constraints- some relation to socio-cultural perspective - establish more egalitarian practices - wider application

Behaviourist - operant conditioning can guide instructional materials and can compare cohorts over time

Activity theoretic perspective - useful to analyse situations to identify problems/conflicts. Used to analyse change.

Socio-cultural perspective - investigating power manifestations

2. How, if at all, are specific methods (interviews, surveys, focus groups, observation, etc.) and methodological approaches related?

The historical, cultural and political context influences the researcher's interests and thus their choice of topics to study and their methodological approach. Specific methods have been developed on the basis of methodological approaches and affect the types of conclusions that they are willing to draw.

For example, in an interview or questionnaire, the types of questions asked may reflect the culture/interests of the moderator or a difference in culture may cause the respondent to have a different understanding of the questions from the moderator.

The Hiltz & Meinke paper was written in 1989 which correlates with the end of phase two, the stand alone systems, described by Conole et al. (2007). They suggest that stage two shows 'increased activity in terms of multimedia functionality but that it is still content driven and focused on the interactive tutorial paradigm'. Hiltz & Meinke describe methods of teaching that are mainly behaviourist and mainly transmissive with e-lectures although there are some indications of self-determination and presentations are assessed. Other parts of the paper suggest a more social and participatory approach. This mixture of methods would link in with the end of stage two and the start of stage three which is characterised by the shift away from the individual and a move to more situated learning as described by Conole et al.

The Wegerif & Mercer paper was written in 1997 and describes research published in 1996. According to Conole et al. this time period fits towards the middle of phase three, networking technologies, where we are 'beginning to see more emphasis on the wider contextual issues (skills, strategy, importance of embedding and integration). Also a shift away from the emphasis on the individual to the concept of situated learning'. There is also evidence of 'linking of development to strategy' as the intervention described by Wegerif & Mercer was planned to coach young children in exploratory talk with the aim of improving group problem solving. According to Conole et al., this is more indicative of the growing awareness of collaborative activities which comes into evidence in phase four (after 2000) and so may suggest that the timeline needs adjusting or that this was school utilising innovative techniques.

In our tutor group timeline we have the introduction of social technologies such as the forum, podcasting and the wiki, in 1994 with blogging coming later in 1998. This seems to suggest that, although the technologies may not have been in widespread use in education, they were available in the market place and there would have been a growing awareness of collaborative work. I believe that this would have been likely to effect the attitudes of more innovative teachers at the time and encourage the form of forward thinking that suggested this intervention.

In the Wegerif & Mercer research, qualitative analysis suggested key words which were analysed by a concordance program which illustrates another aspect of phase three where higher education lecturers are using ICT as a 'tool of the trade'.

1. In the discussion of task A11 (pp. 279-81) the account of the students' utterances is plausible, but why is transcript data to be preferred to the video data for such a visual task?

It is much easier to analyse and report transcribed data. Video data is time consuming to analyse as it must be observed and re-observed in order to analyse in detail and it is easier to do this from a transcript. Ease of use means that more raw material can be examined.

Some forms of analysis can be done direct from the recording when the researcher needs to focus on what is going on and not get too focused on the detail of what people have said.

2. A criticism sometimes made of quantitative research is that it uses preconceived categories rather than letting findings 'emerge' from the data. The 'Commentary' on task A11 (pp. 280-1) is qualitative rather than quantitative, but it could be argued that it also uses preconceived categories.

For example, Elaine's words before the intervention, 'No, because it will come along like that', and the fact that the next utterance is by John on the next question are interpreted as, 'She gives a reason to support her view and this is not challenged.'

Her words after the intervention, 'Now we're talking about this bit so it can't be number 2 it's that one. It's that one it's that one' are interpreted as, 'In proposing number 4 Elaine is building on these two earlier failed solutions' (p. 281).

Wegerif and Mercer have prior expectations about 'exploratory talk', defined as 'talk in which reasons are given for assertions and reasoned challenges made and accepted within a co-operative framework orientated towards agreement' (p. 277).

So notions such as 'reason', 'support', 'challenge' and 'failed solution' have specific, preconceived meanings. Do you think it would be possible to avoid the use of preconceived categories when analysing this data?

Glaser & Strauss (1967) published The Discovery of Grounded Theory which suggests that researchers should ignore the literature and theory and just work on the raw data to produce categories that are not contaminated by preconceptions. This originates from philosophers such as Bacon and Locke but, in that first book they do not account for the idea that 'there can be no sensations unimpregnated by expectations' (Lakatos, 1982, p.15). Later on, they separately discuss the preconceived knowledge and research that researchers have at their disposal before data collection and analysis.

Charles Sanders Peirce discusses the 'heuristic framework' of concepts that inform a researcher and suggests that abductive interference combines the new data with previous knowledge so that pre-conceptions often have to be abandoned or modified.

Following this the preconceptions must be regarded as heuristic concepts which form lenses by which the empirical world can be viewed.

http://www.socresonline.org.uk/2/2/1.html#s4 [Accessed 13^th Feb 2011]

I think that it would be difficult to avoid preconceptions when conducting the research but the use of initial coding without concern about categorising the codes would help. Once any relationships had been explored using diagrams, then focused coding can be used to reduce the number of codes and identify repeating ideas and themes.

inductivism - theories have to be based on empirical observations which are generalised into statements that can be regarded as true or probably true. (from Hume)

positivism - the only authentic knowledge is that which is based on sense, experience and positive verification (from Compte)

3. Again in relation to task A11, what evidence might support the following claim on p. 281?

'In the context of John's vocal objections to previous assertions made by his two partners his silence at this point implies a tacit agreement with their decision.'

Once again it is difficult to discuss this without resort to the original paper but it may be possible to back up this claim with evidence from the video on his facial expression and body language. For example, if he is still engaged with the group activity, this would back up this assumption whereas if he was sitting back or looking at posters on the wall then it would suggest he was bored of the conversation and the authors' assumption would probably be incorrect.

4. On p. 281, the authors claim:

'It was generally found to be the case that the problems which had not been solved in the pre-intervention task and were then solved in the post-intervention task, leading to the marked increase in group scores, were solved as a result of group interaction strategies associated with exploratory talk and coached in the intervention programme.'

When you read this claim, did you ask yourself if the researchers had looked at whether this was also true of the control group? If time allows, feel free to look at the papers in which fuller accounts of the study appear.

I was concerned that the control group may have a different, less comfortable relationship with the teacher/researcher and still be inhibited in the discussion for the second test.

5. In the post-intervention talk around problem A11, John says, 'No, it's out, that goes out look'.

This utterance doesn't use the words 'cos', 'because', 'if', 'so' or a question word, but it is plausible that John is giving a reason. How might one deal with such a problem?

A set of rules that identified reasoning behaviours in the video as well as in words

6. Are you convinced that the study effectively demonstrates the authors' case that:

'the incorporation of computer-based methods into the study of talk offers a way of combining the strengths of quantitative and qualitative methods of discourse analysis while overcoming some of their main weaknesses'?

No, intuitively I agree with the authors but I cannot determine it from the evidence that they present.

7. What does the computer add to the analysis?

The growing literature on computer assisted qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS) expresses both hopes and fears. The hopes are that CAQDAS will: help automate and thus speed up and liven up the coding process; provide a more complex way of looking at the relationships in the data; provide a formal structure for writing and storing memos to develop the analysis; and, aid more conceptual and theoretical thinking about the data. In spite of these pros there are a good many criticisms and worries about the software in the literature: that it will distance people from their data; that it will lead to qualitative data being analysed quantitatively; that it will lead to increasing homogeneity in methods of data analysis; and that it might be a monster and hi-jack the analysis.

http://www.socresonline.org.uk/3/3/4.html [Accessed 13th Feb 2011]

8. What is the status of computer-based text analysis 10 years on? Spend 20 minutes trying to answer this question by searching the web.

I had a look at ATLAS.ti which offers a variety of tools for accomplishing all the tasks associated with a  systematic approach to unstructured data, i.e. data that cannot be meaningfully analyzed by formal, statistical approaches. It is a tightly integrated suite of tools that support analysis of written texts, audio, video, and graphic data. ATLAS.ti brings to the job highly sophisticated tools to manage, extract, compare, explore, and reassemble meaningful segments of large amounts of data in flexible and creative, yet systematic ways.

Create quotations directly from audio and video files, work with or without transcriptions. Link audio to text and videos to photos. Treat videos clips as you would text files, draw connections between any kind of data and content.

• create quotations in any type of audio / video / image file just like in textual documents
• annotate multimedia quotations
• hyperlink between multimedia quotations and text files (and vice versa, of course...)
• assign multimedia files like textual files as standalone documents

http://www.atlasti.com/

9. How does this paper compare with Reading 1?

My current thinking is that there seems to be two types of qualitative research: one which draws on theoretical concepts and draws up firm hypotheses which can be proved or disproved during the investigation; and one which uses theoretical concepts in order to produce vague conjectures about possible relationships and then examines these by investigating the raw material.

The Hiltz & Meinke paper uses two explicit research questions with firm hypothesise for each. One it investigates with a null hypothesis and quantitative analysis. The  reason for a null hypothesis is to suit the statistical tests we use to analyse the results

HI: There  will be no significant  differences in  scores  measuring mastery  of  material taught  in  the  virtual  and  the  traditional classrooms.

The other uses mainly one tailed correlational hypotheses in the form of predicting a significant positive correlation.

H2: VC students will perceive  the VC to be superior  to the TC on a number  of dimensions:
2.1  Convenient  access to  educational  experiences;
2.2 Improved  access  to  their  professor;
2.3 Increased  participation  in a course

I feel very uncomfortable with correlational hypotheses as it appears to me that they are likely to influence the researcher when collecting and analysing data. Think this comes from my science background!

The Wegerif & Mercer paper reports on research that seems to have used the second type of analysis with vague conjectures that are confirmed with conversation analysis. However, only a review of the research is presented in this paper and it is hard to judge whether firm hypotheses were used. Unfortunately the OU library only has the journal from 1997 and the full research was presented in an article from 1996! Tried other Uni libraries and cannot get it at all.

Simpson, J. & Everatt, J. (2009) 'Reception class predictors of literacy skills'

Notes on importance and nature of screening tests for dyslexia. What issues are relevant to your own interpretation, use and critical evaluation of any screening tests for dyslexia that you may use?

DEST (Dyslexia Early Screening Test, Nicholson & Fawcett, 1996)
4:6 to 6:5 years
Based on three possible causes of dyslexia: phonological deficit; magnocellular auditory pathway (rapid processing); automatising skills (Cerebellum)
Sub-test scores combine to give ARQ (at risk quotient) - controversial

Need to show predictive validity across age ranges and contexts

Combined tests may reduce the ability of a test to predict variance in skills

Predictors of later literacy development change with age so test needs to change with age

Reid (2009) Chapter 5

1. What specific tests are mentioned and what do they assess?

Cognitive Measures: WISC -IV (Wechsler intelligence scale) assumes IQ tests are valid/reliable; IQ and reading share causal dependency; no information on how to intervene

Processing Skills: PAL-11 (Process Assessment of the Learner) explains why; suggests how to intervene;

WIAT-11 (Wechsler Individual Achievement Test) correlates with WISC; extent of difficulties but no guidance on which areas are involved

CTOPP (Comprehensive test of phonological processing); more specific; precise diagnostic information and evaluation of progress.

Woodcock Reading Mastery Tests- formal; structured

GORT-4 (Gray oral reading tests) - both top down and bottom up processes; uses Miscue analysis but diff. marking than Goodman

LPAD - Freuerstein's learning potential Assessment Device - dynamic test/assisted assessment - intervention AND assessment

What is meant by 'standardised and psychometric criteria'?

Standardised utilises a basis for comparison; a reference point against which other things can be evaluated (norm-referenced). E.g. IQ tests, reading age. Need care to avoid bias in test construction.

Psychometrics is the field of study concerned with the theory and technique of educational and psychological measurement, which includes the measurement of knowledge, abilities, attitudes, and personality traits. The field is primarily concerned with the construction and validation of measurement instruments, such as questionnaires, tests, and personality assessments. (Wikipedia). Tries to establish a norm.

WISC - psychometric, standardised test.

What do you understand by the term 'screening'?

Screening is a strategy used in a population to detect a disease/difficulty in an individual without signs of the disease/difficulty.

At what age, which skills, how should results be used?
All children?

What are the key aspects of curriculum assessment?

In context; performance in natural environment; using meaningful activities

• Cloze procedure
• Silent reading
• Reading aloud
• Free writing
• spelling

What is miscue analysis?

Miscue analysis is a tool for looking closely at the types of reading strategies a reader uses. The kinds of miscues (incorrect guesses) a reader makes when reading from a text will give the listener clues about how familiar or unfamiliar the reader finds the content matter, and how easy or difficult they find the text to read. Reading tests do not give this sort of information because reading is so much more than just looking closely at each letter and every word. Based on Goodman (1976)

What is meant by the 'components approach' to assessment?

• Distinguish dyslexia from slow learner
• Distinguish dyslexia from comprehension deficits
• Adapted for teacher and psychologist
• Complete diagnosis: qualitative and quantitative

The advantages of observational assessment?

• Gives info which can lead to personalised development programme
• Less stress for learner
• Flexible
• Adaptive
• Contextual

Give some examples of 'assessing in context'

Specific difficulties relating to subject e.g. relative importance of information and ordering information in history.

History example was assessment designed to bolster self-esteem

2. Look at the assessment materials in Reid (2009) Appendix 1 and the assessment materials on the course website.

Which tests are suitable for large numbers of students and which are individualised?

In which ways would you differentiate between these assessments and decide which to use?

Although it seems one of the least important factors, I would have to mention that the availability of the tests would have to play a part as I would like to use a selection of tests and they are expensive so it would have to depend on which tests the university would be willing to pay for or already possessed.

Age is an important factor - I work with a population of adults over a wide range from 18years in a University context.

I would like to use a screening approach initially with in depth discussion on family history, past and present educational experiences and other life experiences.

I do not feel that an IQ test is appropriate with these adult learners who have achieved university entry. However it may be necessary to include if required by the Student Loans Company to justify their payment of Disabled Students Allowance.

I think that I would like to use the Process Assessment of the Learner Diagnostic Assessment for Reading and Writing (PAL-11) and then progress to dynamic assessment models but this would all depend on the demands of the Student Loans Company. I intend to do some more research in this area in order to find out what exactly is required.

Reid (2009) Chapters 11, 12, 15

What are the factors that Reid considers contribute to the potential tensions in including children with dyslexia in the mainstream school? Refer to your own situation

• Whole class/group teaching
• Standardised assessment
• Competition between schools (league tables)

In a higher education setting, I would list the tensions as:

• Premium placed on academic literacies including publication so that spelling and grammar are identified as a top priority
• Emphasis on written exams as assessment method
• Government emphasis on preparation for employment and graduate level employees must be able to critically analyse literature and write reports

What are the issues identified in the chapter that need to be addressed to ensure children with dyslexia can have full curriculum access in the mainstream school?

• The Context: age of student / nature of learning / class size / environment / opportunities for withdrawal. Communication important when children receiving support outside classroom.
• Identification of Needs: how it informs teaching / are they adequate to identify strengths and difficulties? Informal assessment can be good to inform needs.
• Curriculum: how can teaching approaches be related to curriculum? Can gains be transferred? Which approaches have been successful or unsuccessful in the past?
• The Learner: individual factors such as learning style and cognitive factors / are there opportunities for extended learning?

Reid suggests that student self-advocacy is an important factor. Do you agree with this and how can this be accommodated and developed for students with dyslexia? Refer to your own situation.

I believe self advocacy is very important. Probably one of the most important factors I considered when I chose to home educate my children. As an adult I am less stressed when I feel in control of the situation and it is no different for children. Stress has been found to be unproductive in the learning environment and it has been reported to impair both short and long term memory when associated with learning processes (Bisaz, 2009). In a higher education institution the student with dyslexia can be assisted to feel in control of the situation by ensuring that they are fully aware of the assessment procedure for DSA and of their choices. In the past students were offered dyslexia tuition and this was then structured around the current requirements of their course. The current situation seems to be changing and Derby University is insisting that students take up dyslexia tuition before they can access other forms of assistance. Some universities are also dictating the format of support sessions and not allowing students to structure their own individual plans. This seems to be a response to funding constrictions. However, students are becoming more vocal about their needs now that they are personally paying so much more in fees so this situation may change.

In Chapter 11 Reid refers to over twenty key components of a teaching approach for students with dyslexia: study these factors, how do they fit with the views of Norwich and Lewis? Can they be embedded into teaching approaches for all or are they representative of the unique differences position highlighted by Norwich and Lewis? Refer to literature and your own practice (see also pp183-4)

All the general points (p.158-159) are vital requirements for the general population of students and so should be embedded into teaching approaches. Coming from a background of working with students with various impairments, I also think it is very important to point out that WCAG2.0 really must be complied with. For example, use of colour to highlight key words can help some people but the use of colour alone to transmit information is discouraged under the guidelines as it impairs reception of the information for people who are colour blind.

Universal design is important but flexibility is also important. For example, I know people with dyslexia who find font size 14 impossible to read as it changes the letter spacing and others who much prefer this size.

In the list of key components, I would also suggest that these are Key components for all learners. I was surprised that transfer of skills was not mentioned. In my opinion, one of the most important considerations for the choice of in class support rather than withdrawal is the ability to reinforce current learning in all subjects throughout the curriculum. It is part of situated learning (Lave & Wenger) and helps the learner to understand the importance of the skills by placing them in a social context. In higher education, the most successful dyslexia tutoring is that which works on the necessary skills in the context of the current course requirements - as a part of gaining knowledge of the academic culture.

Other notes

Reid reports that Nicolson and Fawcett (2001) proposed that dyslexic children have difficulties making skills automatic (Reid, 2009, p.157). Not sure about this one. Is it a problem with automaticity or is it a multi-tasking problem? Is multi-tasking an automaticity problem? Working with young people with Asperger Syndrome, I find that many have no problems with gaining automaticity but cannot multi-task easily due to focus. Perhaps they are interlinked but I would be careful about saying that people with dyslexic have automaticity difficulties.

DVD - 'Early intervention in East Renfrewshire'

Read (2009) Chapter 4

What are the advantages and disadvantages for having a screening programme in the early years?

The advantages are that children with any sort of difficulty are picked up and can receive extra support. Those who are slightly delayed developmentally will benefit as well as those with SpLDs. Parents can be assured that extra help is available for their children.

Disadvantages come from labelling a child when they are so young and setting up expectations/excuses for failure.

What would be the difficulties in implementing such a strategy?

It must be a screening strategy for all difficulties rather than a diagnosis and communication with the students and parents must be carefully handled.

Power struggles and communication between various agencies i.e. overlap between nurseries, pre-school and school.

What differences might it make for young children?

Catch the children before they fail thus preventing loss of self-esteem. Children can be assisted to stay on the same track as their classmates and parents can be reassured that children are being helped with a genuine difficulty rather than being lazy thus avoiding them putting pressure on the child.

How does this fit with a policy of inclusion?

It allows the child to stay with the class and there will be less likelihood of their withdrawal for special help at a later stage.

Hiltz, S.R. and Meinke, R. (1989) 'Teaching sociology in a virtual classroom', Teaching Sociology, vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 431-46.

Questions: What research questions are being addressed?
To see if CMC systems can improve access and effectiveness of post secondary delivery: is it a viable option? i.e. are outcomes as good?; what variables are assoc. with esp. good or poor outcomes?

Setting: What is the sector and setting?
US College - in the US the terms 'college' and 'university' are loosely interchangeable

Concepts: What theories, concepts and key terms are being used?

"Learning is the structuring of a situation in ways that help students change, through learning, in intentional (and sometimes unintentional) ways" (Johnson & Johnson, quoted on p. 432)
Suggests a behaviourist view of learning in that the students' behaviours are modified in the desired direction. (Operant conditioning, Skinner)

The VC still employs a transmissive format with e-lectures although some self-determination in order of activities is indicated, some active dialogue is employed and presentations are assessed.
Other parts of the paper suggest a more social and participatory form of education following Lave & Wenger's theories.

Methods: What methods of data collection and analysis are used? (e.g. the number of participants; the type of technologies; the use of interviews, surveys, observation, etc.)

• Matched but 'non-equivalent' sections of the same course; same teacher; same text; same printed materials; same exams;
• students self-select VC and TC
• Some mixed mode courses - 25-75% VC (107 & 96 students)
• Pre and post-course questionnaires
• Grades and SAT scores
• Records of time spent online
• Observation
• Interviews
• Case reports
• VC students still took exams in TC manner
• Hypothesis testing

Findings: What did this research find out?

• VC can increase access and effectiveness of college-level education
• Similar levels of skill in both groups
• No sig. diff. in final or mid-term scores
• Some diff. in general scores for comp. sci. Students
• Students thought VC was convenient
• Students thought access to professor was improved in VC
• There was improved participation in VC
• No sig. diff. in increased level of interest
• Communication variable; highest in mixed-mode courses

Limitations: What are the limitations of the methods used?

• Self-selection - more computer literate may choose VC; those with time constraints, perhaps too busy for course, may choose VC;
• Researcher delivering one course may affect outcomes
• Two very different unis so introducing another variable - big difference in results
• Everything in written form so disadvantaging those with SpLD
• Variations in cognitive maturity
• VC students formed F2F buddy groups thus changing format of research group
• Students did not have computers at home or in dormitories so had to go out to access them - those with computers at home most likely to appreciate convenience
• 50 hypotheses and over 200 variables - too many variables so difficult to determine any correlation e.g. low level student participating, high level student participating, low level student participating, high level student participating - what effect does this have on their opinions of communication?
• Questionnaire is in complex English for lower level students - strongly agreeing with negative.
• Compulsion to sign in twice a week reduces flexibility (p.440)

Ethics: Are there any ethical issues associated with the research?

• Use of pen names could encourage disclosures/comments that were unwise in a class situation and, as course progressed, identities may be inadvertently revealed.
• VC students may have discussed quiz answers with buddies in computer lab

Implications: What are the implications (if any) for practice, policy or further research?

'Results were superior for well-motivated and well-prepared students who had adequate access to necessary equipment and who took advantage of the opportunities..'

Motivation and access seem to be the main issues with the tutor having a crucial role in motivation by building a collaborative group.

'VC delivery mode seems better for courses that treat a few topics in depth rather than for......courses that attempt to cover a large number of topics in a short time'

I would agree with this as many people on H800 reported that they wanted time to do deeper research on some areas.

Meinke thought VC most suitable for those with advanced reading and writing skills but agreed that it was stimulating for all students as a component of mixed courses.

Activity 1.5: Reflecting on the paper (2 hours)

1. What counts as evidence in this work?

Quantitative research: questionnaire results, grade scores, exam results, records of time spent online

Qualitative research: interviews, observation, case reports

2. How do the two explicit research questions relate to the design of the research?

1)  Is the Virtual Classroom a viable option for educational delivery?  (On the whole, are outcomes at least as good as those for traditional face-to-face courses?)

2) What variables are associated with especially good and especially poor outcomes in this new teaching and learning environment?

The first question is addressed by using a null hypothesis and quantitative analysis of the course scores and results. It is a fairly straightforward yes/no answer.

The second is addressed by qualitative methods. I believe that this is the best way of investigating the introduction of new methodologies into such a complex social situation of a university setting. There is no straightforward yes/no answer but a mixture of student and staff perceptions and opinions. I am concerned about the prejudice shown in the hypothesis and in the selection of sub-hypotheses shown. Would this sort of prejudice influence interviews, observations and case reports? Investigating such a complex area needs to be carefully controlled but the authors suggest that they are testing 50 hypotheses and over 200 variables which would interact. An attempt has been made to make the findings more quantitative by using a questionnaire.

3. In what ways is the wider literature used in the paper?

To reference the full evaluation of results (Hiltz 1986,1988) p.432

To provide a definition for education (Johnson & Johnson, 1975) p.432

To provide reference for:

• previous work on CMC (p.432);
• software descriptions (p.433);
• collaborative learning (p.433);
• cognitive maturity (p.434);

To reference quote (Harasism p.434)

4. What views of education and learning underpin the research?

Technology as an add-on rather than an integral part of learning design.

"Learning is the structuring of a situation in ways that help students change, through learning, in intentional (and sometimes unintentional) ways" (Johnson & Johnson, quoted on p. 432)
Suggests a behaviourist view of learning in that the students' behaviours are modified in the desired direction. (Operant conditioning, Skinner)

The VC still employs a transmissive format with e-lectures although some self-determination in order of activities is indicated, some active dialogue is employed and presentations are assessed.
Other parts of the paper suggest a more social and participatory form of education following Lave & Wenger's theories.

E801: Action 3.7: Further reflections on 'Specific reading disability (dyslexia): what have we learned in the past four decades?'

House of Lords Debate, 5^th March 1980; cited in Ott, 1997)

• No agreed criteria for distinguishing dyslexic children from other children
• Children whose difficulties are marked but whose general ability is at least average
• Distinctive arrangements are necessary for those children
• The term 'dyslexia' is used too loosely
• The term is not descriptive enough to be helpful to the teacher

I believe that the comments are still relevant today. Looking back to the comments I recorded from lecturers in action 3.1, there is agreement that distinctive arrangements are required but that the term 'dyslexia' is used too loosely and so there are far too many students falling into the category and insisting on specialist help. The comments from students suggest that the lecturers understand the reading and spelling aspect but do not understand organisational and working memory problems.

Ministerial Statement on Dyslexia, 6^th May 2008

More emphasis on specialist training for teachers as well as students and checking on the impact of this training.

Joint response from dyslexia organisations on DCSF Announcement, 6^th May 2008

Do we really know how to support these children effectively?

1 SpLD qualified teacher per school

Rose Report (2009)

Notes:

Page 10 (12 of pdf)

Dyslexia is a learning difficulty that primarily affects the skills involved in accurate and fluent word reading and spelling.

Characteristic features of dyslexia are difficulties in phonological awareness, verbal memory and verbal processing speed.

Dyslexia occurs across the range of intellectual abilities.

It is best thought of as a continuum, not a distinct category, and there are no clear cut-off points.

Co-occurring difficulties may be seen in aspects of language, motor co-ordination, mental calculation, concentration and personal organisation, but these are not, by themselves, markers of dyslexia.

A good indication of the severity and persistence of dyslexic difficulties can be gained by examining how the individual responds or has responded to well founded intervention.

Screening tests are unreliable Page 11 (13 of pdf)

Personalised approach is necessary Page 13 (15 of pdf)

Short courses for teachers/ some teachers to have specialist training (p.15)

Specialist skills in some schools / Advanced skills for some teachers in all schools / Core skills for all teachers (p.16)

Not a dyslexia specialist for every school but for groups of schools(p.18)

E801: Action 3.5: Reading, Dyslexia and the Brain

Goswami, U. (2009) 'Reading, Dyslexia and the Brain' in Fletcher-Campbell, F., Soler, J. & Reid, G. Approaching Difficulties in Literacy Development: Assessment, Pedagogy and Programmes. Chichester, Sage.

• The importance of locating neural sites for reading
  Can provide evidence to prove/disprove theories such as determination as to where reading begins
• The role of developmental differences
  'High degree of consistency in neural networks recruited by novice and expert readers' (p.13)
  'reading related activity in the brain becomes more left lateralised with development' (p.13)
  [This seems intuitive to me as novice readers start by reading aloud and then move to silent reading with lip movement and then to fully silent reading]
• How neuro-biological understanding can inform intervention
  Single route model of reading development
  Reading did not become left-lateralised (p.15)
  Hypoactivation of areas on the left with atypical continued use of areas on the right (p.18)
  Atypical auditory processing (p.19)
• The role of brain imaging as a research methodology that can enhance our understanding of developmental dyslexia
  Wide range of functional problems so difficult to equate participants (p.14)
  Must use same techniques (p.14)
  Problems with equating groups - e.g. is difference due to non-dyslexics having greater expertise? (p.15)

Reid, G. (2009) Dyslexia: a Practitioners Handbook. Chichester, Wiley-Blackwell. Chapter 2- Causal modelling framework

Frith, U. (2002) 'Resolving the paradoxes of dyslexia' in Reid, G. & Wearmouth, J. (eds.) Dyslexia and Literacy, Theory and Practice. Chichester, John Wiley & Sons.

3 levels: behavioural, cognitive, biological (over-lapping)